Scientific Racism – Skulls and Brains

Neriah Clarke


This piece is the first in a series of posts about scientific racism. It may be an uncomfortable read.

Introduction

Scientific racism is the use of pseudoscience (flawed science) to perpetuate racist ideas and practices. Race itself is also a product of pseudoscience and was first documented in Carl Linnaeus’ book “systema naturae” (systems of nature), published in 1735 (Linnaeus, 1735). Much scientific focus of the 18th century was on taxonomy, so it is unsurprising that this system extended to the classification of humans. By suggesting a natural order among mankind damaging consequences ensued and such patterns are seen to this day.

Skulls

Craniometry is a branch of physical anthropology (study of humans) and focuses on the measurement of skull size. Such pseudoscience was used by Morton in the 19th century to categorise the intellect of the races (Morton, 2018 (1839)). Morton had an extensive collection of skulls from individuals of varying races and upon measuring the skulls found that the skulls of Caucasians were of greater size compared to those of Indians which were greater than those of Black people. These skull measurements were then used to suggest that cranial size reflects brain size which in turn corresponds to intellect (Morton, 2018 (1839)). Modern literature shows weak association between brain size and intelligence, but debate exists among some groups (Koch, 2016).

Brains

A commonly quoted means of measuring intelligence is that of information quotient (IQ) testing. The first IQ tests underwent development in the early 20th century (Kaufman & Harrison, 2008). A variety of IQ tests were developed such as that by Binet and Simon, Stern, Terman and Weschler but it is that by Weschler which is most commonly used today (Kaufman & Harrison, 2008). Many IQ tests are based on a comparison of individual participant scores against scores of individuals of their own age. The age specificity of IQ tests means scores cannot be generalised between age groups and scores show potential as opposed to absolute intelligence.

Another key problem is that IQ test results are culturally specific. This means that expected knowledge varies depending on environments which the participants have grown up in. Awareness of cultural specificity was not taken into account when IQ differences between “Black and White” Americans were interpreted as “Blacks” being less intelligent than “Whites” (Colman, 2016). To add, lower scores among immigrant populations e.g. Italians and Jews was used to deem such peoples “feeble-minded” (Goddard, 1917). Low IQ scores in the eugenics (good birth) era led to the forced sterilisation not only of people of colour but also that of poor individuals and of individuals with learning disabilities. It is also known that and learning difficulties such as dyslexia may affect ability to partake in such tests.

Conclusion

Craniometry is a very much dead aspect of scientific racism but IQ testing is not. Intelligence testing is still being used to this day to diagnose learning deficits in psychology, used by MENSA and anecdotal evidence suggests that some American police departments set an IQ cap for officers employed.

Skulls and brains is a tiny snippet of scientific racism, keep your eyes peeled for more!

References

Colman, A. M., 2016. Race differences in IQ: Hans Eysenck's contribution to the debate in thelight of subsequent research. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 103, pp. 182-189.

Goddard, H. H., 1917. INTELLIGENCE OF IMMIGRANTS: Dr. H. H. Goddard Finds Indications That Large Part of Those Who Arrive in the Steerage are Feebleminded—Low Grade of Intelligence May Possibly Not Be Hereditary in This Case. Journal of Heredity, December, 8(12), p. 554–556.

Kaufman, A. & Harrison, P. L., 2008. Intelligence Testing, History of. [Online]
Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470373699.speced1103
[Accessed 15 June 2020].

Koch, C., 2016. Does Brain Size matter. Scientific American Mind, January, pp. 22-25.

Linnaeus, C., 1735. Systema Naturae. s.l.:s.n.

Morton, S., 2018 (1839). Crania Americana: or a comparatif view of the skulls of various aboriginal nations of ... America. s.l.:Creative Media Partners.

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